Until the mid-16th-century, Europe’s minting techniques had not progressed from ancient Greek coinage, which was struck by hand using dies and a hammer. Eventually, this method became ineffective as a large amount of bullion was imported from across the world and the mints had trouble keeping up. To solve this problem, minting machinery was invented in 1550 based on Leonardo da Vinci’s ideas and using hydraulic wheels. It was first adopted by France, followed by England in 1560, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. This “milled coinage” was produced in round…
